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Machu Picchu or as it is sometimes refered to, “Old Peak” is a pre-Columbian Inca site located 2,430 metres or 8,000 ft above sea level. It is to be found on a mountain ridge above the Urubamba Valley in Peru, which is 80 kilometres or 50 miles northwest of Cuzco and through which the Urubamba River flows. To many it is deemed “The Lost City of the Incas”. Machu Picchu is one of the most notable historical sites of the Inca empire.

It is in a subtropical zone. As a result of this the climate is mild, warm and damp, with temperatures averaging 130 degrees Celsius year round in the day. There are two notable seasons during the year. The first is the rainy season which spans from November to March. During this period there is a lot of heavy rain fall. The dry season occurs from April to October and is associated with higher temperatures. Tour guides will normally advise visitors to dress in accordance with the seasonal alterations.

Of the numerous things to be observed in Machu Picchu the flowers and animals that reside there are of particular interest. There are multiple varieties of animals and plants. The more common plant life in the historic reserve of Machu picchu is inclusive of pisonayes, q’eofias, alisos, puya palm trees, ferns and over 90 species of orchids.

Animals that may be observed in the reserve include the spectacled bear, cock-of-the-rocks or “tunqui”, tankas, wildcats and a awe-inspiring variety of butterflies and insects that are unique to the region.

The guided tour of Machu Picchu is initiated on a path that leads from the bus terminal. The path which was carefully designed to accommodate tourism enters the massive structure in the section that holds a set of rooms that are close to the outer wall. The path passes through a terrace and then into the agricultural zone just before entering the urban area.

The large is divided into two parts: the agricultural and the urban. There are main squares, temples, palaces, storehouses, workshops, stairways, cables and water fountains which run through both parts. The agricultural sector measures 20 hectares while the urban area measures 10 hectares.

Its complete architectural design was firmly based on Cuzco, which is the capital of the Inca empire. Machu Picchu was built in accordance with its natural surroundings. Its structure follows the natural curves and dips and rises that are evident in the land.

There is railway line that runs between the city of Cuzco and the station of Puente Ruinas or Machu Picchu. The trip begins in the station of San Pedro in Cuzco, after which the train makes it way up the Picchu mountain until it reaches the highest point an area called “El Arco” (in English the arch), located in the northwest part of the city. The route then goes down to the villages of Poroy, Cachimayo and lzcuchaca until it arrives at the Anta plains, which is a well known cattle area. It climbs down the gully of Pomatales before once again making a descent to the Sacred Valley of the Incas. At this part of the journey it arrives at the station of Pachar. The train will then make it last stop at Machu Picchu.

The Open System Interconnection Reference Model or OSI Reference Model or OSI Model is for the most part a conceptual description for layered communications and computer network protocol design. It was produced as part of the Open Systems Interconnection or OSI initiative. In its most fundamental form, it segments network architecture into seven distinct layers: the Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data-Link, and Physical Layers. Because of this it is frequently referred to as the OSI Seven Layer Model. A layer is a collection of ideally similar functions that enable services to the layer directly above it and obtains service from the layer beneath it. On each single layer an instance provides services to the instances at the layer above and requests service from the layer beneath. An example of this relates to a layer that provides error-free communications across a network which then provides the path needed by applications above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that comprise the contents of the path.

Work on a layered model of network architecture was initialized in the year 1977. Around the same time the International Organization for Standardization or ISO started to develop its OSI framework architecture. OSI has two major constituents: an abstract model of networking, called the Basic Reference Model or seven-layer model and a set of specific protocols. It is vital to note that the standard documents that describe the OSI model can be freely downloaded from the ITU-T as the X.200-series of recommendations. A number of the protocol specifications can also be accessed as part of the ITU-T X series. The equivalent ISO and ISO/IEC standards for the OSI model are available from ISO, however not all of these are available free.

Every area of the OSI design evolved from experiences with the CYCLADES network, which also had a great influence on the design of the internet. The latest design has been meticulously documented in ISO 7498 and several of its addenda. In this latest model, a networking system is separated into layers. Within each layer, one or more entities establish its functionality. Each entity will interact directly only with the layer just underneath it, and enables facilities for use by the layer above it. Protocols will allow an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the same layer in another host. Service definitions ideally describe the functionality provided to an (N)-layer by an (N-1) layer, where N is one of the seven layers of protocols operating in the local host.

Neither the OSI Reference Model nor OSI protocols dictate any programming interfaces, other than a purposely abstract service specifications. Protocol specifications precisely define the interfaces between multiple computers, but the software interfaces within computers are implementation-specific.

Take for example, Microsoft Windows’ Winsock, and Unix’s Berkeley sockets and System V Transport Layer Interface, are interfaces between applications (Layer 5 and above) and the transport (Layer 4). NDIS and ODI are interfaces between the media in Layer 2 and the network protocol in Layer 3. Interface standards, with the exception of the Physical Layer to media, are estimated implementations of OSI Service Specifications.

In the United Kingdom and in many places in Europe, driving a heavy goods vehicle or HGV, as it is often called, requires a special type of license, and only a licensed HGV driver is legally able to drive a heavy goods vehicle. To obtain licensing, a driver must take a test that is sanctioned by the government. The newly instituted formal name for HGV that was declared by the European Union or the EU is large goods vehicle or LGV. The original title HGV was changed to LGV because not all European countries had a word that translated with the same connotation as “heavy” in the English language.

Category

HGV is typically sectioned into two categories. The first is Category N2, which allows a goods vehicle to load a maximum allowable mass or MAM of up to 12 tonnes. The second is Category N3, which enables a vehicle to load over 12 tons.

Job Description

The HGV driver is given the function of transporting heavy goods from one client to another within the United Kingdom or multiple areas within the EU. This form of transportation may possibly be from one dock to another, from warehouse to customer, from factory to warehouse, from warehouse to retailers or from any other designated destination.

Vehicle

HGV drivers twill typically transport goods by driving a trailer, rigid truck, tanker or special transporter. Driving an HGV vehicle can be a very stressful job, mostly because the driver is generally required to work about 40 hours a week plus an additional 5 to 10 hours a week in some cases. However, a specific rest day has been implemented by the government.

Required Skills

This type of vocational activity requires no formal education or scholastic training. A prospective driver must have a basic comprehension of English and mathematics, and, also training and experience in professional driving. He or she should also have a knowledge of the different traffic rules across states and countries, acute navigation skills on the road and a relatively extensive background in auto mechanics. A basic knowledge of mathematics is essential because the HGV driver must be able to complete paperwork and record sheets competently. An HGV driver must have good eyesight, good health: the driver will need to pass a medical examination and he or she must also be in satisfactory physical condition meaning the driver must be able to load and unload goods.

Additional Responsibilities

An HGV driver is a valuable asset to logistics and trucking companies. The job requires a great amount of responsibility as the driver has to be competent and dependable to ensure the deliveries are made on time and at the correct destination. The load that he or she carries needs to be secured, and the risks of hijacking and accidents are things that the driver will need to anticipate with each journey. An HGV driver may have an assistant to help him or her unload the vehicles. In addition, because the driver will have to make contact with customers he must have a certain level of interpersonal skills.

Logistics managers are responsible for handling processes involved in a supply chain, liaising with a variety of parties including suppliers of raw materials, manufacturers, retailers and consumers. This is normally a two-way process with return of goods. Logistics managers coordinate these processes to make certain that customers are satisfied. A logistic manager will also should have an awareness of and strategic response to external influences, such as legislation, fuel costs and environmental pressures to ensure that his or her duties are performed successfully. The role of distribution manager within logistics may entail transportation, stock control, warehousing, and ensuring structures are implemented to monitor the flow of goods and materials. Information Technology is an essential part of the logistics field in forecasting increasingly complex systems of stock levels, delivery times, transport costs and performance evaluation. The responsibilities of a logistic manager will vary in relation to the specific job role and whether the company of employment is a manufacturer, retailer, or specialist service provider.

There are many tasks that are undertaken to support the smooth and efficient operation of supply chain processes, and normal work activities will chiefly include:

Monitoring the quality, quantity, cost and efficiency of the movement and storage of goods.

Coordinating and controlling the order cycle and associated information systems.

Analysing data to monitor performance and plan improvements and demand.

Allocating and managing staff resources according to fluctuating needs.

Meeting and negotiating with customers and suppliers.

Developing business by acquiring new contracts, analysing logistical problems and providing new solutions.

When a logistic manager manages a warehouse or transport staff, his or her role may also include:

Implementing health and safety procedures.

Managing staff training issues;

Motivating other members of the team;

Project management;

Establishing objectives.

For senior logistic managers their roles may additionally involve:

Planning projects.

Using specialist knowledge, for example mechanical-handling systems, to provide consultancy services.

Entry level

Formal qualifications are not always essential. It is possible to commence one’s logistic career in a junior post, for example as a transport clerk, and with training and experience move up in the ranks to management. However, in this situation the prospective logistic manager is should have a diploma or degree in a subject such as international transport, logistics, supply chain management, transport management or geography. Some other business degree and diploma courses may also be used.

To enter a degree program in logistics it would typicallybe required that you have A levels/three H grades and five GCSEs/S grades (A-C/1-3), or equivalent qualifications. For HNCs/HNDs, a person will usually need one A level/two H grades and four GCSEs/S grades (A-C/1-3), or an equivalent qualifications. Additionally it is possible to study on a Foundation degree in Logistics and Transport.

Some people will pursue the relevant higher degrees, such as an MSc in Transport Management, MSc in Purchasing and Supply Chain Management, or MSc in Logistics.

The Domain Name System or DNS specifically relates to a hierarchical naming system for computers, services, or any resource linked to the Internet or a private network. It connects different sections of information with domain names assigned to each of the participants. Additionally, and perhaps its most important use, it translates domain names that are meaningful to humans into the numerical or binary identifiers associated with networking equipment for the intended objective of locating and addressing these devices globally. A Domain Name System is in some way much like a “phone book” for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into actual IP addresses. For example, www.this example.com would translate to numerals within this formation xxx.xx.xxx.xxx.

The Domain Name System issues the responsibility of assigning domain names and mapping those names to unique IP addresses by specifying authoritative name servers for each domain. Authoritative name servers are implemented to be responsible for their specific domains, and additionally they can assign other authoritative name servers for their own sub-domains. This mechanism enhances the reliability of the DNS making it fault tolerant which subsequently helps to avoid the need for a single central register to be continually consulted and updated.

Generally, the Domain Name System is also used to store other types of information, for example, the list of mail servers that accept email for a given Internet domain. By allowing a worldwide, distributed keyword-based redirection service, the Domain Name System is a vital constituent of the Internet’s overall performance and functionality.

There are times where it might be necessary to flush dns to get a new name resolution. Additionally you may decided to flush dns cache when you can not access a newly registered domain name. You can easily flush your dns cache at any point to get a new entry. It is a relatively easy task that takes very little time. Below the instructions to flush DNS using either of the three major Operating Systems: Linux, Windows or MAC is explained.

To flush DNS cache if using a Microsoft Windows Operating System (Win XP, Win ME, Win 2000):-

• Go to Start
• Then go to Run
• Enter cmd
• Once in command prompt, type ipconfig /flushdns
• The operation should now be complete.

To flush the DNS cache in Linux, restart the nscd daemon:-

• To restart the nscd daemon, Open the terminal and then type /etc/rc.d/init.d/nscd restart
• Once you run this command your linux DNS cache will flush.

To flush the DNS cache in Mac OS X Leopard:-

• Type lookupd -flushcache in your terminal to flush the DNS resolver cache.
• ex: bash-2.05a$ lookupd -flushcache
• Once you run the command your DNS cache (in Mac OS X) will flush.

To flush the DNS cache in Mac OS X:-

• Type dscacheutil -flushcache in your terminal to flush the DNS resolver cache.
• ex: bash-2.05a$ dscacheutil -flushcache
• Once you run the command your DNS cache (in Mac OS X Leopard) will flush.

A large goods vehicle or LGV, is the formal generic term implemented in the European Union for goods motor vehicles such as trucks and lorries with a maximum allowed mass or MAM or gross combination mass GCM of over 3.5 tonnes – 3,500kilograms or 7,716 lb. LGVs are officially categorized into two categories N2 and N3. Category N2 is up to 12 tonnes – 12,000 kilograms or 26,455 lb, and category N3 is more than 12 tonnes.

The older term heavy goods vehicle or HGV is still used quite often in informal settings. It is said that the term was altered from heavy goods vehicle to large goods vehicle because not all countries in Europe had a translation for the word ‘heavy’ with the same meaning.

European Union

Within the European Union, the LGV driver’s licence is segmented into four specific categories:

Category C1

Is basically the new HGV Class 3 in the UK, the old HGV Class 3 being any two-axle goods vehicle that was over 7.5 tonnes – 7,500 kilograms or the equivalent 16,535 lb. This allows the holder of this license to drive a vehicle with a maximum authorised mass gross vehicle weight between 3.5 tonnes to 7.5 tonnes with a trailer up to 750 kilograms or 1,653 lb maximum authorised mass. A driver can obtain this licence at 18 years of age.

Category C1+E

This allows the holder to drive a vehicle with a maximum authorised mass gross vehicle weight between 3.5 tonnes – 7.5 tonnes with a trailer over 750 kilograms or 1,653 lb maximum authorised mass, provided that the maximum authorised mass of the trailer does not in anyway exceed the unladen mass of the vehicle being driven, and also that the combined maximum authorised mass of both the vehicle and trailer does not exceed 12 tonnes.

For example: A vehicle with an unladen mass of 2,650 kilograms or 5,842 lb, and a MAM of 4,005 kilograms or 8,830 lb, with a trailer MAM of 2,200 kilograms or 4,850 lb will give a combined MAM of 6,205 kilograms or 13,680 lb, but the Unladen Mass of the vehicle being driven 2650 kg is greater than the MAM of the trailer 2200 kg so is therefore acceptable. However, a vehicle with an unladen mass of 2650 kg and a MAM of 4005 kg, with a trailer MAM of 2,700 kilograms or 5,952 lb will produce a combined MAM of 6,705 kilograms or 14,782 lb), but because the MAM of the trailer 2700 kg exceeds the Unladen Weight of the vehicle being driven 2650 kg, a driver would need a Category C+E licence to drive that vehicle.

Category C

Is essentially the new HGV Class 2 in the UK, the old HGV Class 2 was any rigid goods vehicle with more than two axles. It allows the holder to drive a vehicle weighing over 3.5 tonnes 3,500 kilograms or 7,716 lb with a trailer up to 750 kilograms or 1,653 lb maximum authorised mass.

Category C+E

Is the new Class 1 which allows the holder to drive a vehicle weighing over 3.5 tonnes or 7,716 lb with a trailer over 750 kilograms or 1,653 lb maximum authorised mass. Previously, this licence could only be attained after driving a class 2 truck for at least 6 months, but in recent times the law has changed to to allow drivers to do the tests one after the other with no lengthy waiting period in between. This means a driver can apply for a Category C first then C+E the following week.

Engineering Management is defined as the field that relates to the application of engineering principles to the planning and operational management of industrial and manufacturing operations. Engineering Managers are equipped with the ability to plan and manage these sorts of operations. Engineering Management programs normally involves instruction in accounting, engineering economy, financial management, industrial and human resources management, industrial psychology, management information systems, mathematical modeling and optimization, quality control, operations research, safety and health issues, and environmental program management.

An engineering manager will typically need training and experience in both general management which will often include business administration and the specific engineering disciplines that will be employed by the engineering team that he or she will manage. In addition, a successful engineering manager must completely understand that the factors that motivates some individuals to pursue careers in engineering are normally very different than those that motivates individuals who are strongly business minded. Subsequently, the skills that are essential to coach, mentor and motivate technical professionals are not the same as those that are needed for individuals in other fields. The engineering manager must essentially be able to relate to the engineers he or she will manage.

There are several education and certification programs available that can provide Bachelor’s, Master’s and Ph.D degrees in this field. Undergraduate programs offer generalist degrees that enable engineers to cope more productively in the business environment. Master of Engineering Management (MEM) provides a technical-based alternative to the traditional MBA programs. Industrial and professional associations like engineers’ societies also offer certification programs that will aid in the validation of engineering management knowledge and skills. The specialization areas that may be found in both degree and certification programs may be comprised of management of technology, product and process, quality, organizational management, operations management, program management, marketing and finance.

Formal Engineering Management education is normally conveyed at the graduate level and is also an academic field that is attaining more interest. Candidates for engineering management must possess an academic undergraduate degree with a major in engineering, computer science, mathematics or the sciences. The duration of study for this type of degree is generally between a year and two and the completed degree may be designated as a Master of Engineering Management, MS in Engineering Management, MS in Technology or Innovation Management, Master of Business and Engineering or MS in Management Science & Engineering, depending on the university that offers the degree. Engineering Management students are expected to possess a variable amount of work experience before enrolling, which is largely determined by program requirements. The degree chiefly includes units covering Management, Entrepreneurship, Marketing, Finance, Optimization, Innovation, Operations and Project Management, among many other areas. Students in this type of program chiefly opt to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines such as Marketing, Finance, Healthcare and Energy.

Once an individual obtains the mastery level in Engineering Management then he or she will be able work within that field.

Senior management or Executive management is comprised of a set of employees who are at the highest level of organizational management. They are in charge of handling the management of a company or corporation. These types of managers attain a specific level of executive powers which is bestowed upon them by the board of directors. Executive managers report directly to the board of directors and in effect run these corporations on their behalf.

Executive managers, in general, will have specific functions that they themselves may carry out or more often than not delegate these responsibilities to adept subordinates. Some of these functions include some of the following.

An executive manager should be able to plan appropriately. He or she will decide before hand what to do, how to do it, when to do it, and who should do it. This will carefully establish a path from where the organization currently is to where it wishes to be. The planning function requires the creation of goals and arranging them in logical order. Executive managers will be instrumental to both short-term and long-term planning.

An executive manager should be able to organize efficiently. Organizing is comprised of identifying responsibilities to be performed, grouping responsibilities into departments or divisions, and defining organizational relationships. The objective is to achieve a coordinated effort among all the elements in any organization i.e. coordinating. In organizing these elements the executive considers the delegation of authority and responsibility and the level of control given to supervisors.

An executive manager should be able to determine the required staff for the organization. This means he or she should be have the ability to fill job positions with the right people at the appropriate time. This includes deducing staffing needs, writing job descriptions, recruiting and screening people to fill the specific positions.

An executive manager should be able to direct the human resources of a company. Directing, or perhaps more accurately, commanding, is leading the employees in a way that accomplishes the goals of the organization. This necessitates proper handling and distribution of resources and providing a substantial support system. An executive manager must subsequently have extraordinary interpersonal skills and the ability to motivate his or her employees. One of the vital issues in directing is to discover the correct balance between the needs of the staff needs and the requirements needed to make profits.

An executive manager must be capable of controlling all elements within the corporation. Controlling is essentially the function that assesses quality in all areas with the primary goal of identifying possible or realistic deviations from the organization’s plan. In carrying out this function the executive manager makes certain that the company produces high-quality performance and no less than satisfactory results while maintaining an environment that is conducive to productive. Controlling involves the management of information, measurement of performance, and implementation of corrective actions.

An executive manager should attain a certain level of education and experience. In most instances a person will have to pass through several ranks within an organization before being considered for executive power. In most cases a prospective executive manager will need a number of years of experience in an administrative role and a proven track record of success that can be determined by his or her performance in a related role. Additionally, it is now expected that an executive manager should achieve at least a mastery level of education by obtaining an executive MBA.